Future Reflections Summer 2000, Vol. 19 No. 2
Independence and Mobility
Excerpts from
Modular
Instruction For Independent Travel For Students Who Are Blind Or Visually
Impaired:
Preschool Through
High School
by Doris M. Willoughby and
Sharon L. Monthei
From the Editor: I wish I could send every parent, teacher, and O&M instructor of a blind child in this country a free copy of this marvelous book. But I can�t. I�ve been told that at $20 (plus $3 shipping and handling), this 398-page book, complete with photographs and diagrams, is already a steal. What I can do, however, is reprint sections from the book so readers can see for themselves what an extraordinarily useful resource it is.
Professionals who have read the book have been impressed by the practical organization of the book into modules, and by its �positive spirit and attitude toward independent travel� (Ralph E. Bartley, Ph.D., Superintendent, Kentucky School for the Blind).
The book can be ordered from the NFB Materials Center, 1800 Johnson Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21230, (410) 659-9314.
We begin the series of excerpts with a section called �Who Should Teach� from chapter B, �General Principles And Overall Planning:�
Who Should Teach?
Everyone in the child�s
environment is his/her teacher. A child learns daily living skills from parents
and siblings; social conventions from neighbors and relatives; academic and
other skills from various schoolteachers; games and activities from young
friends. Orientation and mobility is part of this large picture.
If a child does not develop
increasing independence�including the use of a cane at an early age�he or she
will expect continual assistance from others in getting around. If parents and
school staff see that the child does begin cane usage early, then he or she
will develop increasing independence appropriate for each chronological age.
Modular Instruction assumes
that at least one person in the child�s life (probably a teacher or parent) has
made serious study of how the cane is used, and takes the lead in guiding
others to facilitate learning. There are many ways to gain this knowledge; the
National Federation of the Blind will be pleased to help you find a source.
When this book uses the term
�teacher� or �instructor,� it means whatever adult is working with the student
in the activity.
Parents
The foundation of all learning
occurs in infancy and very early childhood. The general development of infants
and toddlers is beyond the scope of this book. However, many Modules contain
suggestions which apply to toddlers and even infants.
Children walk with their
parents to the neighbor�s house; to cross the street; to go from the car to the
drugstore. They go with the family to the grocery store; the doctor�s office;
the mall; the zoo. The Modules in this book give specific ideas for making each
excursion an age-appropriate learning experience.
When an educator takes the
lead in instruction, parents nevertheless continue to guide skill development
outside of classes. Parents also monitor the instruction itself to assure that
it is appropriate. And some parents, facing a lack of educators with
appropriate knowledge, take the lead for instruction themselves.
Other family members�aunts and
uncles, grandparents, siblings, and other relatives�share the responsibility.
Often someone other than the parents (even a fairly young child) happens to
have the best opportunity to teach a particular thing.
In a residential school, the
houseparent is much like a part-time parent. Development of skill in travel is
a part of this responsibility.
Specialized Teachers
Specialized teachers of blind
students typically take the lead in cane travel instruction. The lead
instructor should outline a curriculum to develop skills in an organized
manner. He/she should ensure that the child learns what is currently needed (as
by emphasizing street-crossing immediately for a city child.) At the same time,
he/she should make sure no major age-appropriate skill is completely omitted.
(For example, a rural high school student should visit a larger town and work
with traffic lights.)
The specialized instructor
must not exist in an �ivory tower� in solitary splendor. Continual consultation
with parents and with other teachers is essential. Specific practical
suggestions, with demonstrations as needed, enable other adults to guide the
child in integrated, consistent progress.
At times, the specialized
instructor may play additional roles by default. If the parents, despite much
consultation, never take the child along to a store, the instructor should
spend extra time with this. If the sixth grade teacher has promised to show the
blind student the way to the rest room, but somehow this is not happening, the
travel teacher may need to assist.
Similarly, there are many
places around the school where the class may not go as a group, but which
sighted students will understand through sight. The flagpole and the kitchen
are two good examples. Sighted students see the flags flying and occasionally
watch the custodian run them up and down. They see the kitchen when they walk
by in the lunch line. But the blind 6-year-old may not know what a flag and its
pulleys are actually like (he cannot reach the flag in the classroom either).
He hears the clatter of the kitchen, but may not really understand what is
there. When the travel teacher�s lesson focuses on a single interesting
location, it provides great interest and variety (vital for the young child) as
well as filling in gaps in concepts.
Gaps in knowledge can occur at
home also. The travel teacher may conduct many lessons near the home of a
preschooler who is just learning to get around in a large yard and the nearby
neighborhood. The teacher may help an older student walk between home and
school, between home and the bus stop, between home and a nearby convenience
store, etc.
Classroom Teachers and
Activity Leaders
Many different teachers carry
out activities which relate to these Modules. Day care providers, as well as
school and preschool classroom teachers, are included. Leaders of Scout troops,
religious groups, and other activities will also find this book relevant.
Routinely, preschool and
elementary school groups tour the dentist�s office, the zoo, the grocery store,
the City Hall, etc. Leaders will find these Modules helpful in making each
excursion an age-appropriate learning experience.
When the specialized teacher
introduces a skill, other must encourage and remind the child to keep it up.
They must see that opportunities exist to put the skill into practice.
The Instructor Who is Blind
The Module, �The Blind Travel
Instructor,� provides suggestions on alternative techniques. The parent or
teacher who is blind or visually impaired will find this Module helpful. If the
instructor has some other disability, these suggestions can provide a starting
point for ideas. The National Federation of the Blind will be pleased to
provide specific suggestions and the names of instructors who have
disabilities.
The Handbook for Itinerant and Resource Teachers of Blind and
Visually Impaired Students includes
two examples of successful blind teachers.
Editor�s Note: Two of the first questions parents ask when discussing the use of the white cane is, �How long should it be?� and �Which kind is best?� Sharon L. Monthei addresses these questions in �Module 1: DESCRIPTION OF BASIC TECHNIQUES (Including Stairway Techniques).� Here is what she says:
The Length of the Cane:
There is some debate about the
appropriate length of the cane. Blind people have found through experience that
the length of the cane is an individual matter, depending upon the length of
stride, walking speed, and reflexes of the student. To consider the length of
the cane, hold it vertically in front of the individual: ordinarily it should
reach somewhere between the armpit and the nose. Shoulder height is a good
length for a first cane. A cane reaching only to the sternum (breastbone) is
not long enough for the average student to assume a normal walking speed with
safety. The cane must be long enough to allow a student two steps to stop.
Generally speaking, a traveler
will want a longer cane as speed is developed, and this should be left up to
the student who is an experienced traveler. The desire for a longer cane should
be viewed as a positive sign.
One way to check whether a
cane is the right length is to observe where the foot steps in relationship to
the cane touch which would cover it (i.e., the place where the cane last
touched on that side). If the foot touches approximately the same place the
cane did, the cane is the right length. If the foot touches in front of where
the cane touched, the cane is too short. If the foot touches significantly
behind where the cane touched, the cane is too long. (Or, occasionally, the
stride may be found to be much too short.)
The cane also must reach two
steps ahead on stairs. Although shoulder height is a good length for an adult�s
first cane, this tends to be too short for a young child. For children,
generally the cane should reach as high as the nose when held vertically.
Since children grow, it is
necessary to change cane lengths periodically. Some National Federation of the
Blind state affiliates have cane banks for kids, so that canes in children�s
sizes are available on loan and can be traded in when necessary. Since it would
not be unusual for a child to change canes ten or more times from early
childhood through adolescence, this is a considerable saving.
Which Cane to Use:
The best cane currently on the
market is called the �NFB straight cane.� It is hollow fiberglass with a rubber
and metal tip and plastic cylindrical handle. This cane is the most sensitive
because it is light and flexible, is made in one piece, and has a metal tip
which provides information both through touch and sound. It is also weighs only
a few ounces so that small hands do not become tired using it. Because of its
construction, it can be used with either hand or switched from hand to hand
when convenient. It is available in children�s sizes (with handle and shank
properly proportioned for small hands) from the National Federation of the
Blind at the National Center for the Blind.
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Cody
Greiser of Montana uses an NFB fiberglass cane of about shoulder height.
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In my opinion, the next best
cane on the market is sometimes called a Rainshine� cane after the company
which manufactures it, and also sometimes called the Iowa cane. It is solid
fiberglass and is otherwise much like the NFB straight cane. It is not quite
as sensitive or as light as the NFB straightcane. Some people prefer this
cane because it is virtually indestructible.
Many other straight canes are
rigid, have nylon tips which do not slide easily, and provide little
information about substances touched. They wear in such a way as to make the
cane either left�or right�handed. (This problem is partly due to the �golf
grip� handle often used.)
Collapsible canes have one
main disadvantage�they do collapse. They are not very sturdy because they are
held together either by nylon cord or by telescoping joints. The movement of
the cane shakes the pieces apart. Because they are not one solid piece, they do
not telegraph information as accurately. Many blind people buy them so that
they can collapse them when they don�t want people to know they are blind. Use
of a collapsible cane encourages avoidance of facing the real issues of
blindness.
If a collapsible cane is used
at all, the best use is as an extra to be kept in reserve. For example, it
might be kept in the desk at work in case something happens to the regular
cane.
Editor�s Note: The 93 modules in the book are grouped into 11 categories. The first 13 modules are under the category BASIC TECHNIQUES. Some of the other categories are:
At Home - Indoors,
At Home - Outdoors,
At-school - In-doors,
At-school - Out-doors,
Community - Outdoors� (Increasing
Skills),
Public Buildings - General, and
Outdoor Locations.
The next excerpt is from the first half of �Module 5: OBSTACLES: Noting Them and Proceeding.�
Module 5
OBSTACLES
Noting Them and Proceeding
Objective: The student will detect an obstacle in his/her path, proceed around it, and continue in the desired direction.
Age of Student: Preschool and up
Primary Skill Emphasis:
Obstacles in path
Correcting a path
Flexibility and confidence
Moving straight ahead
Orientation overall
General travel
Posture, grip, gait, and arc
Landmarks
Additional Skill Emphasis:
Compass directions
Right and left
Overhanging objects
Detecting step-downs or drop-offs
Maps
Stairs
Corners, turns, and angles
See Also (Other Modules):
Introducing the Cane
Doors Closed or Open
Unfinished Basement, �Crawl
Space,� or
�� Attic
Sidewalk Flawed or Obstructed
Street Crossing with
Obstruction
Alternate Route Within a
Building
Back Yard (Overall)
In a Crowd
Walking Independently While
Following
�� Someone
Description of Basic
Techniques
�Aha!� not �Oops!�:
Jenny, age 6, was learning to
find her way in the school hallways. Whenever her cane touched a box or other
object, her teacher said �Oops.� Jenny walked slowly.
Ian carried his cane in a
gingerly manner. It seemed as though he were carrying a tray of dishes instead
of a cane�trying not to bump it into anything.
Jenny and Ian were victims of
a common error often made by educators and family members: unconsciously
viewing the cane�s touch as a �collision� (not really desirable) rather than a
�discovery� (desirable). This rubs off on the student, who unconsciously learns
to proceed slowly and gingerly, and fails to take real advantage of the
potential of the cane.
This Module emphasizes attitudes
and techniques which help ensure the use of the cane as a tool. Cane usage is
an alternative technique with its own characteristics�not just a weak attempt
to imitate the methods used by the sighted. The goal is not to proceed with as
little sound as possible, touching as few things as possible. Rather, the goal
is to proceed quickly and efficiently. Some sound is expected and desirable, as
the cane tip touches objects and the surface underfoot. Proceeding
confidently�as opposed to a timid, even cringing approach�is part of the
overall attitude that it is respectable to be blind.
When Jenny and Ian became Mrs.
Vrbek�s students, she quickly helped them change patterns of attitudes and
techniques. With Jenny, she began by saying �Aha!� in a pleased voice each time
she observed Jenny�s cane finding an obstacle. Jenny soon picked this up and
began saying �aha� also, instead of the �oops� she had acquired from her
previous teacher. Soon she was bouncing down the hall at twice her previous
speed, from time to time murmuring �aha� as she went around something.
Mrs. Vrbek asked Ian (age 9)
to put on sleep shades, and she went with him to the playground. She faced him
toward a chain-link fence and asked him to walk forward quickly. After a few
steps, the cane tip encountered the fence and Ian stopped short. Mrs. Vrbek
could �see the wheels going around in his head� as he internalized the idea he
should have grasped long ago: �Now I really understand what the cane can do! It
can find things before I get to them, when I can�t see them, or when I can�t
see them well enough to tell what they are.�
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David
Small shows his son, Benjamin, how he can use the cane to find obstacles.
This impromptu lesson takes place in the Materials Center of the National
Center for the Blind, headquarters of the National Federation of the
Blind
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�Now he realized,� Mrs. Vrbek
said afterward, �that the cane is supposed to touch things, to give him
information.�
This Module, as well as many
others, emphasizes the attitudes and techniques which make the cane an
effective tool. There are two major aspects: (1) recognizing the presence of an
obstacle, and (2) proceeding in the desired direction.
Activities:
Example 1: Basic Instruction
(Elementary grades and above)
Children age 6 and over, many
who are younger, ordinarily grasp the general idea of going around an
obstruction during the first lesson. It then becomes a matter of practice and
refining techniques. Particularly, the student needs to build skill in (1)
arcing the cane consistently and reacting quickly, so that the object is
immediately detected, and (2) maintaining orientation in order to continue in
the desired direction.
A child in the earliest
grades, or a student with special problems, may need emphasis on concept
building as described for preschool (below), though in an age-appropriate
manner.
The Modules, �Sidewalk Flawed
or Obstructed� and �Street Crossing With Obstruction,� have suggestions for
various ages.
If educators and family
members over-anticipate obstacles for the student, the child will learn to
depend on verbal cues and/or physical guidance, rather than developing
independence. The Module, �Walking Independently While Following Someone,�
Describes a student following me through a parking lot. He was amazed to encounter
utility poles, traffic islands, and concrete barriers, because he had always
been guided around them.
Sleep shades are essential. If
the student sees objects visually, however fuzzily�or thinks she can�she will
not learn what the cane can do.
Remember: When the student�s
cane encounters an object, the comment is �Aha!� [found it] or perhaps �Hmmm�
[let�s think], and NOT �Oops!� [a mistake!]
Example 2: Basic Instruction
(Preschool)
In the Module, �Introducing
the Cane,� one Example has detailed suggestions for initial instruction with
the very young child.
A child of
preschool/kindergarten age will need physical guidance as well as verbal
explanation with appropriate vocabulary. If you say, �This cane can detect
obstacles,� she will probably not understand. But she will understand if you
say, �This can find things so you don�t get bumped,� and if you move her
through plenty of physical demonstration.
Understanding that the cane
can tell the difference between a clear path and an obstacle is perhaps the
most basic concept in actual mobility. Without this understanding, the child
will not really move �independently.� She may move, with verbal assurance
and/or physical assistance�and she may be learning. But until she actually
realizes what the cane can tell her, she is not really using the cane to get
information.
For a very young child,
gaining this understanding is a developmental process�it comes gradually, and
continually increases.
Following is a representative
list of specific experiences which aid in developing understanding and skill:
Often use� a very large �obstacle.� Face the child toward it at fairly close range, and direct her to �Find the ____.� [wall, fence, sofa, etc.] When she finds it, sometimes let her examine it tactually (and sit on it, in the case of a sofa). Occasionally, humorously scrunch yourself and the child up against the wall or fence while saying, �Whew! We can�t go on ahead here, can we? This wall is REALLY in the way.�
Seek out situations where there is an obstacle in just the right place for the child�s current level of understanding. Set up situations if they do not occur naturally. Place a chair in the hallway; scatter boxes across the middle of the room; leave a large toy on the sidewalk. (Note: Always consider possible inconvenience to others. For example, if objects are placed in a common hallway, they should be removed immediately after the student has practiced. Also, as necessary, talk with other staff about the reason for the obstacles.)
When the child knows she is headed toward a desired location, there is an eminently �teachable moment.� She is particularly ready to perceive that the obstacle is �in the way,� and that she must go around it and resume her desired path�or she will not reach her destination. Examples include a desk between her and the toy shelf, a coffee table in front of the couch, large box in the hallway. Sometimes, give her a running commentary for added emphasis: �So, now we�re walking toward the toy shelf�Hmmm, here�s that desk. You found it with your cane�and you�re going around it�Good! Now you�ve gone around the desk, and you�re walking on toward the toy shelf�Yes! Your cane found the wooden shelves, and now let�s see what toys we have today��
Some
of the time, a young child needs to be physically guided through the patterns
of (1) encountering an obstacle, and (2) going around it and proceeding in
the desired path.
�� I often place a hand on her shoulder,
gently helping her along. Guiding the child from behind is distinct from the
usual human-guide posture where the guide is a half-step ahead. The purpose
is entirely different; guidance from behind is much more analogous to the
traditional help to a beginning swimmer. The helper gently assists while the
learner proceeds on her own power. Assistance can easily be gently faded in
and out as the situation demands.
�� If this kind of thing is never done,
the child may not move quickly enough or consistently enough to understand.
However, if this is done too much, she never has the experience of correcting
her own path and making decisions herself. Thoughtful judgment provides help
an appropriate percentage of the time.
Verbal directions often are not sufficient with a young child. Saying, �Go to your right,� for example, is not enough if the child still cannot tell left from right. Give her a physical nudge in the correct direction, while explaining verbally.
Sometimes stand beyond the obstacle, so that the child is guided onward by walking toward your voice. This provides help without physical assistance, and it also develops the concept of a fixed destination. A similar idea is to have some other sound at the destination.
Except for the initial lesson and other planned exceptions, do not anticipate for the child what her cane will tell her in a few moments anyway. Urge parents to follow this policy also. If you always tell her everything, she will never learn to trust her cane (and neither will the adults in her life).
The Module, �Doors Closed or Open,� gives detailed suggestions for developing concepts.
The Module, �Street Crossing With Obstruction,� gives examples of natural and contrived obstacles.
Remember: Say �aha��not
�whoops��when the child finds something with her cane. An in-between comment
(as, the �hmmm� above when the desk was in the way between the child and the
toy shelf) can be helpful also. A worried �whoops� should be reserved for times
when the child actually bumps into something painfully, or knocks something
over (presumably because the cane was not used skillfully).
Editor�s Note: Independent travel is not just about how to carry and use a cane. It�s about orientation�knowing where you are and what is around you as you move about in your environment. It stands to reason that independence will be severely limited if knowledge about the environment is sparse. The following excerpt is an example of how the modules in this book combine the elements of cane techniques, orientation skills, and environmental exploration.
It is also an example of an approach that is especially effective with very young children. As Doris Willoughby points out in chapter B �General Principles and Overall Planning,� �an entire session that is centered on �the flagpole,� �trees,� or �the public-address system� ...is precisely what provides interest and focus for a young child.�
Here is �Module 23: PORCH OR DECK.�
Module 23
Porch or Deck
Objective: The student will name the outside features of typical houses, examine them where possible, and discuss how they relate to inside structure.
Age of Student: Preschool through primary grades
Primary Skill Emphasis:
General travel
Stairs
Examining things tactually
Detecting step-downs or drop-offs
Additional Skill Emphasis
Structure of buildings
Finding a seat
Doors and doorways
Sound direction and meaning
Air currents and echoes
Interpreting odors
Barefoot walking
Hills and inclines
See Also (Other Modules):
Back Yard Boundaries
Back Yard (Overall)
Inside and Outside the House
Home�contents of room
What is a �Room?�
Unfinished Basement, �Crawl Space,� or
�� Attic
Utilities and Trash
Teacher Preparation: Look carefully at each port or deck. What features are particularly interesting? Is there a place where the student could climb on and off without using the steps? Is it possible and safe to go underneath, at least for a short way?
Activities:
Example 1: Details of One Porch or Deck
�The Johnsons said we could go
onto their deck today. Look with your cane for the second sidewalk to the left.
Turn there and walk toward the house. When you find some steps, walk up onto
the deck and look at it.�
Note that the steps have no
railings at the side; sweep the cane from side to side enough to avoid stepping
off sideways.
Note the sound of the cane
tapping the wooden floor. It sounds different than on an indoor wooden floor.
Find the door leading inside.
If possible, walk in briefly and note what room opens onto the deck.
Walk around the perimeter of
the deck, noting its size. Is there a railing?
Examine planters or other
features. Sit on each chair or bench. A triangular corner seat may be a new
experience.
Look for places where it is
easy to get off and on without using the steps. (Reach over the edge with the
cane to verify height.) Practice getting off and on at various places�climb,
jump, or simply step. (Some blind children believe this is never possible.)
Go underneath to experience
how it feels. Is it cool? Does it smell musty? Tap the underside of the wooden
floor (probably with the hand, not with the cane). Are things stored
underneath?
Example 2: Compare Others
In a similar manner, examine
and compare various kinds of porches and decks.
Explore a deck that is high
above ground level, with many steps leading up. Note the guardrail. Understand
that stepping off would cause injury. Stand upright underneath.
Walk around on a large porch
that has a roof over it. Can you easily step on and off at many different
places?
Explore an enclosed porch
which has screening or windows. Why is it called a porch, even though it has
walls and a roof?
Examine an entrance which has
no porch or deck. Are there steps, a welcome mat, or other typical features?
Editor�s Note: Considerable space in the book is devoted to the older student. Some of the modules, such as the one below�Module 40: School Bus�cover situations which are� appropriate for all ages. Others, such as �Module 90: Public Buses� and �Module 93: Urban Rapid Transit: Subways and Elevated Trains (Monthei)� are specific to older youth only. Some of the factors which the authors urge be emphasized for the older student (see page 9, chapter B) include:
Independence in daily living skills (finding a seat independently).
Praise and approval given without �gushing.�
Variety (more than one route for practice).
Please note how the sample factors listed above can be applied to Module 40 (below) when considering the older student:
Module 40
School Bus
Objective: [For a student who regularly rides a bus] The student will walk to and from the correct bus independently. He/she will board, select a seat, and leave the bus with no more assistance than is customary for other students. (He/she may ask directions as needed.)
[For a student who does not
usually ride a bus] The student will examine the general structure and
arrangement of a school bus. He/she will board a bus, take a seat, and leave
the bus with minimal assistance.
Age of Student: all ages
Primary Skill Emphasis:
Doors and doorways
Finding a seat
Stairs
In a crowd or a line
Stowing cane
Additional Skill Emphasis:
Street Crossing
Daily living skills
Detecting step-downs or drop-offs
Sound direction and meaning
See Also (Other Modules):
Public Buses
In a crowd
Doors and doorways
Walking in a line of people
Meeting a car
Urban Rapid transit
Teacher Preparation: It may or may not be possible for you, the teacher, to assist the student on her very first trip. Talk with parents and bus personnel. (Note: Consult the school principal before giving directions to bus drivers. The principal may wish to participate in the discussion.) Discuss cane usage and placement. Mention that blindness should not affect where a child should sit on the bus.
As soon as possible, conduct
lessons as below, as needed. Review each year or whenever changes occur.
Arrange to spend extra time practicing as needed�probably by having the student
leave class a few minutes early for a lesson while the buses are waiting.
Student Background: A young or immature child who has not previously ridden a bus needs explanation and reassurance. Be sure she understands:
* Where the bus will load/unload near her home, and how she will get to and from her home.
* Where she will sit (Will she have an assigned seat, or may she choose?)
* The bus driver will help any student who has a problem or is lost.
* Where the bus will unload/load near the school, and how she will get to and from the building.
An experienced student
preparing for a new route will need to know:
* The name or number of the bus or route.
* Her own address, with directions if it is hard to find.
* What to do if she waits a long time and the bus does not arrive.
Activities:
Example 1: Preparing To Ride
Practice getting onto the bus.
Walk alongside, with the arc of the cane extended enough to look for the bus
doorway. Also listen for the driver�s voice, and hear the motor idling, to aid
in orientation.
Greet the driver and verify
that this is the correct bus.
Walk up the steps with the
cane, noting that the first step is high.
Using the cane, walk down the
aisle and take a suitable seat.
Place the cane appropriately.
It may be laid on the floor (pointing toward the front and back of the bus, and
not extending into the aisle). It may be placed between the seat and the wall.
Or, the student may hold the cane semi-vertically against the body with the tip
on the floor.
Walk to the back of the bus
and sit in the extreme rear seat. Examine the emergency door. Walk through the
bus and practice sitting in various seats�on each side of the aisle, in window
seats vs. aisle seat, etc. Examine the windows; are student permitted to open
and close them? Are there emergency exits in the side of the bus?
Review rules for bus behavior.
(Optional): Sit in the
driver�s seat and examine some of his/her controls.
Get off the bus. The cane
finds the steps, noting the long step to reach the ground. Good cane usage
prevents tripping over the curb or unexpected obstacles.
Example 2: To and From the bus, At School
Practice the route to and from
the schoolhouse door. If there is a choice of doors, practice with each one.
When leaving the school,
consider how to find the right bus. Does it always stop in the same place? Or
is it in a lineup, and do sighted students look for the bus number?
Suppose that the blind student
rides on Bus #8, which will be in a line of several buses near the gym. When
she find the doorway of a bus that may be the right one, she should ask whether
it is #8. If it is not, she might seek directions as to where #8 is, or simply
keep going and ask at each bus. In time she will probably learn various helpful
facts about the lineup�e.g., if she finds #15, then #8 is probably the next one
forward.
It is often helpful to ask
directions from other passengers who are waiting. They may easily spot a given
bus in a lineup. However, assistance can easily be overdone; other students
should give information as needed, without undue physical assistance.
Especially with a younger
student, the driver may call her name as she approaches. However, even a young
child should start to learn a more mature approach which does not depend on any
one person.
Sometimes the student might
arrive at the lineup area before her bus arrives. Alert your student to this
possibility. If other people are there, they will explain. If no one is there
at all, she should simply wait.
Example 3: To and From the bus, At home
In a similar manner (if
needed), practice the route to and from the bus at the home end. A very young
child may need instruction even if the bus is right outside the door.
If an older student has always
had the school bus come right to her home, consider changing to a stop on the
regular route. This provides valuable independence and experience.
Example 4: If the Student Does Not Usually Ride the Bus
A student who comes to school
by other means should, nevertheless, become familiar with buses. Arrange for
her to practice boarding a bus and sitting in various seats.
This is excellent readiness
for learning to use public transportation. Also, review techniques before the
class goes on a field trip in a school bus.
Related Practice: Ride a public bus (even if the student is at the �readiness� level on this task).
Editor�s Note: It can sometimes be hard for parents, teachers, and others to literally �let go� of the blind child or youth and allow him/her to maneuver independently with his/her cane. This is made more difficult because it is uncommon for young children, or even older youth, for that matter, to go places in public by themselves. This raises questions about when or how often a child should bring or use the cane when they are in the company of others. The following, and final, excerpt from Willoughby�s and Monthei�s Modular Instruction for Independent Travel addresses these questions and concerns in �Module 4: Human Guide.�
Module 4
Human Guide
Objective: The student will walk with a human guide in selected circumstances, using appropriate techniques.
Age of Student: All ages
Primary Skill Emphasis:
Walking in company with others
Human guide
Posture, grip, gait, and arc
General travel
Attitudes toward blindness
Additional Skill Emphasis:
In a crowd or a line
Etiquette
Flexibility and confidence
See Also (Other Modules):
Carrying Things
In a Crowd
Walking Independently While
Following
� Someone
Walking in a Line of People
The Airport
Lunchtime
Remarks: It is important to discuss the subject of human guides during the first few lessons and to review it periodically. One of the greatest barriers to independence is the incorrect belief (on the part of the blind person as well as his friends and family) that the cane is only useful when the person is walking �alone.� This is false for two main reasons: (1) most of us are rarely completely �alone,� but we act independently in many ways while in the company of others; and (2) if the cane is to be used only when the person is �alone,� it will be unfamiliar and unavailable even at those times.
This text uses the term �human
guide,� rather than �sighted guide,� because the guide may be a competent blind
person.
Activities:
Example 1: Introduction
Some students may be
unfamiliar with efficient techniques of walking with a human guide. Review or
teach briefly as necessary:
The blind person takes the
elbow of the guide. (A small child will probably take the hand of an adult.)
The blind person is attuned to the body movements of the guide, while walking
about a half step back in relation to the guide.
With most students, this
posture can be reviewed or introduced while the student continues to use his
cane. If the student is very young or has difficulty grasping concepts, it may
be best to practice for a few minutes without the cane before demonstrating the
combination.
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A
sighted person as a guide
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Example 2: Discussion of PurposeIt
is important to discuss why the cane is used in combination with a human guide.
There are two aspects to this discussion.
Why use the cane if the guide is available? and
Why use a guide at all if the cane is so helpful?
Depending on the maturity of
the student, discuss the points below, with concrete examples. Intersperse
discussion with actual practice.
A preschool-aged child may
simply be told, �Sometimes you will walk with your cane by yourself. Sometimes
you will walk with someone so you can stay together. But you still will use
your cane. Then the other person won�t have to bother telling you about things
in your way. You can take care of yourself, but still stay together.�
A more mature student needs
explanation on his own level, with the opportunity to discuss fully.
Following is a discussion
guide in outline form:
A. Why use a human guide at times even though the student has cane skills?
* It is easy to stay together in a crowd.
* If the other person is showing you where to go, sometimes direct guidance is more efficient than spoken direction.
* In a noisy location, it may be very hard to hear spoken directions.
* For social reasons, two people may prefer to walk together.
* Especially for a younger student, it is sometimes necessary to walk with someone else because of age and safety reasons.
* There may be situations where the student�s cane skills are not yet adequate, or where there are particular advantages to the use of a human guide.
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A
blind person as a guide
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* A young child may rarely be more than a few steps from an adult�especially in public�because of age and safety reasons. If the cane is only used when no adults are near, the child will gain hardly any experience.
* The youngster who does not use his cane when walking with others will fail in a transition that other youngsters make naturally: walking alone more and more as he gets older. Instead of gradually going farther alone in the mall, in public buildings, in stores, and on the street, he simply stays with others. No one may give much thought to this, but independence simply does not increase.
* If the human guide is entirely depended upon, the blind person is at a loss when the guide becomes unavailable. For example, the blind person may want to go into the rest room, shop in a different aisle or store, etc. Also, the guide could be unreliable or become ill.
* The more the human guide is depended upon, the less experience the student will gain, and the less effectively he will use the cane when he does choose to do so.
* Accompanying an independent blind traveler requires little or no effort on the part of the guide. It should be essentially no different than accompanying any other person of comparable age and general ability. However, accompanying a dependent blind person is an effort and a responsibility. If the guide is forgetful, the dependent blind person will trip, fall downstairs, bump into doorways, etc. However willing the guide may seem, this is a burden.
* Guiding a dependent person is also time consuming. The person guided cannot anticipate changes in terrain�steps up or down, slopes up or down, even dirt, etc. The guide often must pause to avoid jolting him. But if, instead, the person guided is using his cane, he can anticipate such changes for himself. Both persons can move along smoothly.
* The attitudes of the guide and the guided are shaped by the behavior of the person guided. It is the difference between accompanying any person (as in showing a stranger the way, enjoying the company of a friend, etc.) vs. assisting a helpless individual who cannot take responsibility for his own movement.
Example 3: Practice in Various Settings
Walk with the student, with
yourself as the human guide, and with the student using his cane.
Walk in a flat, unobstructed
area. Note the width of the arc�the student may need practice to protect his
steps adequately when beside someone else. If this is done skillfully,
ordinarily the cane will not trip the guide. However, it may take some practice
to avoid becoming tangled.
Approach a curb or other
step-down. Again, depending on the student�s maturity, you may choose to give a
warning at first. Also, at first it is helpful to hesitate slightly before
stepping off. An experienced traveler, however, should be able to detect the
curb with the cane before the guide steps off, and follow along smoothly
without hesitation.
Approach an obstacle, such as a
table. Walk past it in such a way that the student needs to alter his path
slightly and �squeeze� past. Depending on the student�s ability, you may or may
not choose to announce the obstacle at first to give practice. Soon, the guide
should be able to proceed without announcing obstacles, and the cane should
detect them. (Caution: Since the two persons are side by side, if the guide
hurries past an obstruction at very close range, it will be hard for the other
person to avoid it in time. A mature blind traveler should be able to react
quickly, let go of the guide�s arm momentarily, and proceed behind the guide in
a tight place. But ordinarily, if the guide remains aware that there are two
people together and allows enough room, both people can go around the obstacle
together.)
Practice on a flight of
stairs. Unless the steps are very wide, it is usually best to let go and
proceed single file while actually on the steps. Practice going up and down.
Approach from some distance away, each time.
Help the student practice in
the above ways with at least one family member. Discuss the reasons for using a
cane with a guide.
Example 4: A Blind Person as a Guide:
As part of the student�s
experiences in becoming acquainted with blind adults as role models, have the student
walk with a blind guide. Emphasize that a guide need not be sighted, but must
be a responsible and mobile individual.
If possible, also give the
student himself experiences in guiding someone who is younger or less able. It
is not essential that the person being guided have less sight than the guide.
The younger person may be totally blind, partially sighted, or fully sighted.
Often a guide who is blind
assists someone who needs help only in knowing where to go, but needs no help
with the act of walking. For example, the older blind student might show a new
student around. The person guided might be a fully sighted student, or a blind
student (totally blind or partially sighted) who uses a cane well. In such an
instance, the blind guide will act as leader. He will use his cane to protect
his own steps, but will not expect to keep the other person from tripping or
bumping objects.
Sometimes, however, a blind
guide will assist a person who cannot walk safely without actual help. The
other person might be a very young child, a mentally handicapped person, or a
blind person who has not learned cane skills. In such a case, the blind guide
must arc more widely to protect the steps of both himself and the other person.
He must detect stairs and obstacles in front of either person, and help as
necessary. Ask a competent blind adult to demonstrate this. A student should
not be expected actually to assist another person in this way unless he is
quite mature and able; however, a younger student should learn that it is
possible.
(Note: Most of this text
assumes that the teacher is sighted. If the teacher is blind, this part of the
lesson will occur naturally. However, it is wise to call attention to it at
times.)
If the school has several
blind or visually impaired students, particularly avoid an insidious pattern:
Partially sighted students continually acting as guides for totally blind
students. Responsibility should be on the basis of skill, not sight. Also note
that a partially sighted person who relies on sight alone is likely to be a
poor guide, exposing the other person to hazard; the guide should use a cane if
his sight is not really adequate.
Whenever possible, insist that
each student travel individually rather than being assisted.
If it should happen that all
the relatively mature students happen to have partial sight, and all those who
need assistance happen to be totally blind, arrange for a totally blind adult
to come in occasionally and demonstrate ability to lead.
Example 5: Continued Discussion
Analyze situations where it
would be efficient to use (1) the cane without another person physically
guiding; (2) the cane with a person guiding; and (3) a human guide alone.
Practice as many examples as possible.
Below are a few examples�by no
means an exhaustive list.
Use of a cane alone, without holding onto another person:
Preschool or kindergarten:
* Walking in familiar areas at school, finding obstacles and steps independently
* Walking around within a narrow range while remaining near adults, in a safe and simple situation (at a picnic in a park; visiting a friend�s home; in a store that is not extremely crowded; etc.)
Elementary school student:
* Walking on the street in non-complicated areas where parents permit him to go
* All around school, including unfamiliar areas where the student might go on an errand
* Shopping (parents may be nearby but not immediately present)
High school student:
* All above
* Shopping at mall, when family or
�� friends are elsewhere
* Walking on the street in complex��
�� locations
* Errands in public buildings
* On public transportation
All ages:
* Walking toward a sound, or following a person by listening, but without holding onto anyone.
Using the cane while holding someone�s arm:
* Staying together while shopping
* Holding parent�s hand (young child)
* When touring a complex area, starting at a new school, going to a meeting at a hotel, etc.
* When complex verbal directions would be much more cumbersome than taking someone�s arm
* Unusual situations, such as walking to a picnic in a large, open park area
Use of human guide only (without cane)
* If a preschool child uses his cane only part of the time, and is not using it at a given time.
* During participation in sporting events, when walking a short distance from one area to another. (If walking a considerable distance, it would probably be more efficient to have the cane available and use it.)
Reference(s):
Willoughby and Duffy, Handbook for Itinerant and Resource Teachers of Blind and Visually Impaired Students, pp. 160, 180-181.